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 ==== A Philosophy of Artificial Life Bibliography ==== 
 
a slightly divergent and extendable version of Brian L. Keeley's bibliography -&gt;  http://www.artsci.wustl.edu/~pnp/alife/alife_bib.html   see also  http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/users/ezequiel/alife-page/alife.html for a more extensive, categorised collection.

   * **Adami** //Artificial Life IV//, Chris 1994 "On Modelling Life." In, Rodney A. Brooks and Pattie Maes, eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 269-276.  {A formal and experimental analysis of self-replication. -bk}
   * **Adami** //Introduction to Artificial Life//, Chris 1998. Springer Verlag. {Not philosophy really, but a good introduction to the field. Comes with ALife software. -bk}
   * **Aristotle** //de Anima//,   
   * **Ascott** //Kultur und Technik im 21.Jahrhundert//, Roy 1993 "Zurueck zur kuenstlichen Natur", in G. Kaiser, D. Matejovski, J. Fedrowitz,  eds., Campus Verlag, Frankfurt.
   * **Ascott** //Art Cognition//, Roy 1993 "The Death of Artifice and the Birth of Artificial Life: a connectivist approach", in Marc Partouche, ed.,,  Cypres, Aix-en-Provence. {Four papers relating ALife to art/culture. -au}
   * **Ascott** //Esthetique des Arts Mediatiques//, Roy 1995 "Le Retour a la Nature II, l'art et la technologie au XXI siecle", in Louise Poissant, ed.,,  Presses de l'Universite du Quebec, Quebec, Tome 2.
   * **Ascott** //Convergence//, Roy 1995 "Nature  II: telematic culture and artificial life", in  Julia Knight and Alexis Weedon, eds.,, John Libby, London, Vol. 1.
   * **Bec** //  * Artificial Life II//, Louis 1991 "Elements d'Epistemologie Fabulatoire.", edited by C. Langton, C. Taylor, J.D. Farmer, &amp; S. Rasmussen.  SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proc. Vol. X. Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley. {An artist on ALife. In French. -bk}
   * **Bedau** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//, Mark A. 1992 "Philosophical Aspects of Artificial Life." In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 494-503. {An overview of 14 philosophical aspects of ALife. -bk} 
   * **Bedau** //Biocomputation-- Evolution as a Computational Process//, Mark A. 1995 "Three Illustrations of Artificial Life's Working Hypothesis." In, W. Banzhaf and F. Eeckman, eds., Springer-Verlag. {A reflection on ALife's "working hypothesis" that "simple computer models can capture the essential nature of [biological processes]."  Proposes that the field of artificial life operates under the working hypothesis that simple computer models can capture the essential nature of living systems, and illustrates this hypothesis with work concerning punctuated equilibria, adaptation at the "edge of chaos", and a law of adaptive evolutionary activity. -bk}
   * **Bedau**, Mark A. 1996 "The Nature of Life".  In Boden 1996. {Proposes a view of life centered on "supple adaptability" and explicates this concept in the context of artificial life models. -au}
   * **Bedau** //Philosophical Perspectives: Mind, Causation, and World//, Mark A. 1997 "Weak Emergence", in James Tomberlin ed. , vol. 11 Blackwell Publishers. {Defines, illustrates, and defends a concept of emergence that is ubiquitous in artificial life and the other "sciences of complexity". -au}
   * **Bedau** //Brain and Cognition//, Mark A. 1997 "Emergent Models of Supple Dynamics in Life and Mind",, 34: 5-27. special volume of papers from a Workshop on "A Bridge from Artificial Life to Artificial Intelligence", edited by A. Moreno. {Developes the analogy between the dynamics of living and intelligent systems, and draws out some implications for how to understand the mind. -au}
   * **Bedau** //The Digital Phoenix: How Computers are Changing Philosophy//, Mark A. 1997"Philosophical Content and Method of Artificial Life." In T. W. Bynam and J. H. Moor, eds.,, Basil Blackwell.
   * **Bedau** //Artificial Life//, Mark A. 1998 "Four Puzzles about Life",, 4 2: 125-140.
   * **Bedau** //Evolution, Life, and Mind: The Emerging Implications of Artificial Life//, Mark A.,   {monograph in progress, to be published by MIT Press/Bradford Books. -au}
   * **Bedau** **Packard** //Artificial Life II//, Mark A. and, Norman H. 1991 "Measurement of Evolutionary Activity, Teleology, and Life."  In, Chris Langton, C. Taylor, J.D. Farmer, &amp; S. Rasmussen, eds. SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proc. Vol. X. Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley. {Half philosophy, half simulation work.  An example of experimental philosophy. -bk}
   * **Beer** //Intelligence as Adaptive Behavior: An experiment in computational neuroethology//, Randall D. 1990, San Diego: Academic Press. {A unified statement and application of the computational neuroethology approach to robotics and cognitive science. -bk}
   * **Beer** //Artificial Intelligence 72//, R.D. 1995 "A dynamical systems perspective on agent-environment interaction".  :173-215. {An argument for the usefullness of dynamical systems in cognitive science, particularly in what they reveal about the adaptive coupling of agents and environments. -bk}
   * **Bersini** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//, Hugues 1992 "Animat's I." In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 456-465.
   * **Boden** //The Philosophy of Artificial Life//, Margaret A. 1996  . Oxford University Press.  {Containing a goodly portion of the best papers listed here, plus a selection of new papers, this should be the "standard text" for some time to come. Also contains a bibliography of further reading. -bk}
   * **Boden**, Margaret A. 1996 "Autonomy and Artificiality". In Boden 1996.
   * **Boden** [[http://www.cogs.susx.ac.uk/| ]], Margaret A. 1998 "Is metabolism necessary?". Cognitive Science Research Paper 482, University of Sussex.  Click   here  to access this paper.
   * **Bonabeau** **Theraulaz** //Artificial Life//, Eric W. and, Guy 1994 "Why do we need artificial life?", 1: 303-325.
   * **Braitenberg** //Vehicles:  Experiments in Synthetic Psychology//, Valentino 1984  . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. {Seminal work on how to construct robots in an evolutionary plausible series of steps. -bk}
   * **Burian** **Richardson** // PSA 1990: Proceedings of the 1990 Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association//, Richard M. and, Robert C. 1991 "Form and Order in Evolutionary Biology".  In A. Fine, M. Forbes, and L. Wessels eds. , ii East Lansing, Michigan: Philosophy of Science Association, 1991.  Reprinted in Boden 1996. {A sympathetic overview and critique of the Stuart Kauffman approach to biology. -bk}
   * **Cariani** //  * Artificial Life II//, Peter 1991 "Emergence and Artificial Life,", edited by C. Langton, C. Taylor, J.D. Farmer, &amp; S. Rasmussen. SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proc. Vol. X.  Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley: 775-797.
   * **Cariani** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//, Peter 1992 "Some Epistemological Implications of Devices which Construct Their Own Sensors and Effectors." In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 484-493.
   * **Cliff** [[http://www.cogs.susx.ac.uk/| ]], Dave 1994 "AI and A-Life: Never mind the blocksworld". Cognitive Science Research Paper 323, University of Sussex.  Click   here  to access this paper. {Dreyfus and Brooks-inspired critique of AI and ALife. -bk}
   * **Cristianini** [[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/5235/cristianini.html| ]], N. "Evolution, Learning and Popper's Epistemology". Click   here   to access this paper.    
   * **Clark** // Artificial Intelligence Review//, Andy 1987 "Being There: Why Implementation Matters to Cognitive Science,", Vol. 1, pp. 23?-244. {What the title says. -bk}
   * **Clark**, Andy 1994 "Autonomous Agents and Real-Time Success: Some foundational issues." Paper presented at the 1994 American Philosophical Association Pacific Meeting, Los Angeles. {A philosophical look at the claims of situated roboticists like Brooks, Beer, and anti-Representationalists like Tim van Gelder.  Suggests that the conclusions we should draw are not those which the roboticists claim primarily, Clark argues that "representation" needs to be reconceived, not eliminated. -bk}
   * **Clark**, Andy 1996 "Happy Couplings: Emergence and Explanatory Interlock". In Boden 1996. {A philosophical analysis of "emergence" within ALife. -bk}
   * **Clark** //Being There:  Putting, Body, and World Together Again//, Andy 1997  . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book. {Influenced by the ALife work going on at Sussex and elsewhere, Clark presents an approach to cognitive science fully informed by an ALife perspective. -bk}
   * **Davidge** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//, Robert 1992 "Looking at Life." In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 448-455.
   * **Dennett** //Behavioral &amp; Brian Sciences//, Daniel C. 1978 "Why not the whole iguana?", 1: 103-104. {A short commentary which suggests modeling whole simple creatures instead of bits of more complex creatures.  Nice companion to Clark 1987. -bk}
   * **Dennett** //Intentional Stance//, Daniel C. 1987 "Evolution, Error, and Intentionality,", Cambridge, MA: MIT Press: 287-321.  {Considers the intrinsic intentionality of a machine that was built to protect our bodies indefinitely, and by analogy the intrinsic intentionality of the bodies which DNA have designed to preserve them, as in Dawkins' 'selfish genes'. -bk}
   * **Dennett** //Biology &amp; Philosophy//, Daniel C. 1990 "Artificial Life - Langton,C.G..", 5 4: 489-492. {A short, positive review of the first ALife volume. -bk}
   * **Dennett** //Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Logic, Methodology, and Philosopy of Science//, Daniel C. 1991 "Cognitive Science as Reverse Engineering: several meanings of 'top down' and 'bottom up'."  In D. Prawitz, B. Skyrms, &amp; D. Westerstahl eds.,  . North Holland. {This paper is the source of worries Harnad 1994.}
   * **Dennett** //Artificial Life//,  Daniel C. 1994 "Artificial Life as Philosophy.", 1 1-2: 291-292. {*Very* short, almost contentless piece on the philosophical impact of ALife. -bk}
   * **Dorin** //Proceedings of ISIS: Information, Statistics and Induction in Science////- from the abstract//, A. 1996 "Computer Based Life, Possibilities and Impossibilities",, Dowe, Korb, Oliver eds Melbourne, Australia, World Scientific Press, p237-246. {"The need for a concise definition for life has been accentuated by recent interest in computer based Artificial Life A-Life. We attempt to apply conventional approaches to defining life in the domain of computer programs."  .}
   * **Dorin** [[http://www.cs.monash.edu.au/~aland| ]], A. forthcoming "The Philosophy and Implementation of Physically-Based, Visual Models of Artificial Life", Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. School of Computer Science and Software Engineering, Monash University, Australia. Submitted March 1999.  For more, see:  http://www.cs.monash.edu.au/~aland . 
   * **Dormay** **Kornman** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//, Jean-Luc and, Sylvie 1992 "Meta-Knowledge, Autonomy, and Artificial Evolution:  Some Lessons Learnt So Far." In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 392-398.
   * **Eigen** //Steps towards life//, Manfred, 1992.  .  Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   * **Eigen**, Manfred, "The Self Organization of Matter" 
   * **Emmeche** //Biology and Philosophy//, Claus 1991 "A Semiotical Reflection on Biology, Living Signs, and Artificial Life.", 6: 325-340. {The semiotics of ALife. -bk}
   * **Emmeche** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//, Claus 1992 "Life as an Abstract Phenomenon: Is Artificial Life Possible?" In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 466-474.
   * **Emmeche** //Artificial Life III//, Claus 1994 "Is Life as a Multiverse Phenomenon?" In, C. G. Langton ed, SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proc. Vol. XVII.  Redwood City, CA:  Addison-Wesley: 553-568.
   * **Emmeche** //The Garden in the Machine: The Emerging Science of Artificial Life////Det Levende Spil: Biologisk Form og Kunstigt Liv//, Claus 1994, Princeton University Press. {translated by Steven Sampson from Emmeche's 1991 Danish  }.
   * **Faith** //Artificial Life VI//, Joe 1998 "Why Gliders Don't Exist: Anti-reductionism and Emergence", in, Christoph Adami, Richard L. Belew, Hiroaki Kitano, and Charles E. Taylor eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 389-392.
   * **Farmer** **Belin** //Artificial Life//, D. F., and, A. d'A. 1989 "Artificial Life: the coming evolution."  In, edited by C. G. Langton. SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proc. Vol. VI. Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley: 815-840.
   * **Froehlich**, Adrian W, Plastware - Das Spiel der Spiegel, Edition Diolkos, Galileo New Paradigm AG, Berne, 1995, {Proposes a game of thought about constructing artificial species. Developes construction rules for so-called plastware-systems. -au}
   * **Gardner** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//ff R. Allen and, Beatrix T. 1992  "Feedforward: The Ethological Basis of Animal Learning." In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 399-410.
   * **Godfrey-Smith** //Artificial Life IV//, Peter 1994 "Spencer and Dewey on Life and Mind." In, Rodney A. Brooks and Pattie Maes, eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 80-89. Reprinted with minor revisions in Boden 1996. {What Herbert Spencer and John Dewey would have said about ALife. -bk}
   * **Harnad** //Artificial Life III//, S. 1994 "Artificial Life: synthetic vs. virtual." In, C. G. Langton ed, SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proc. Vol. XVII.  Redwood City, CA:  Addison-Wesley: 539-552. {Argues that ALife needs to worry about Searlean "Chinese Rooms" and other problems from artificial intelligence.  Keeley 1994/1995 is, in part, a response to this. -bk 
   * **Harnad** //Artificial Life//, S. 1994 "Levels of functional equivalence in reverse bioengineering.", 1: 293-301. {Primarily a regurgitation of the arguments of Harnad 1994a, but a bit more clear in places. -bk}
   * **Helmreich** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//, Stefan 1992 "The Historical and Epistemological Ground of von Neumann's Theory of Self-Reproducing Automata and Theory of Games." In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 385-391.
   * **Helmreich** //Silicon Second Nature: Culturing Artificial Life at the Turn of a Millenium//, Stefan 1998  . University of California Press. {Helmreich is an anthropologist of science who did his "fieldwork" at the Santa Fe Institute.  This book is the result. -bk}
   * **Hendriks-Jansen** //Proceedings of the 1993 European Conference on Artificial Life//, Horst 1993 "Natural Kinds, Autonomous Robots, and History of Use"., 440-450.  {Marries Maja Mataric's landmark-detecting and navigating robot with Ruth Millikan's "History of Use" to claim that interactively emergent patterns of situated activity constitute the most promising natural kinds for psychological explanations. -au}
   * **Hendriks-Jansen** //Artificial Life IV//, Horst 1994 "In Praise of Interactive Emergence, or Why Explanations Don't Have to Wait for Implementations." In, Rodney A. Brooks and Pattie Maes, eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 70-79. Reprinted in Boden 1996. {Title says it all. -bk}
   * **Hendriks-Jansen** //AISB Quarterly//, Horst 1994 "Brain-Models, Mind-Models, and Models of Situated Behaviour"., Spring 1994, 87, 29-35. {Argues that computational models cannot perform the explanatory role that analogical models have traditionally performed in scientific explanation and proposes an alternative use of computational techniques to evolve models of human behaviour. -au}
   * **Hendriks-Jansen** //Catching Ourselves in the Act: Situated Activity, Interactive Emergence, Evolution, and Human Thought//, Horst 1996  . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press a Bradford Book. {A critique of traditional AI and connectionism as explanatory strategies. Argues that computational explanations cannot be grounded through natural selection.  Draws on situated robotics, ethology and developmental psychology to construct a new framework for 'genetic' or 'historical' explanations of intentional behaviour anchored in species-typical activity patterns that have been selected by a cultural environment of artifacts, language, and intentional scaffolding by adults. -au}
   * **Kalmykov** //Proceedings of Third German Workshop on Artificial Life//[[http://www.iteb.serpukhov.su/gentl/gtl.txt| ]][[http://www.iteb.serpukhov.su/gentl/gtl.txt#_top| ]][[http://www.iteb.serpukhov.su/gentl/gtl.ps| ]], Vyacheslav L. 1998 "The Generalized Theory of Life"- in, edited by C. Wilke, S. Altmeyer, and T. Martinetz, Verlag Harri Deutsch, 14p. ISBN 3-8171-1591.  Web versions available:  http://www.iteb.serpukhov.su/gentl/gtl.txt,  http://www.iteb.serpukhov.su/gentl/gtl.ps   
   * **Kalmykov** //Lecture Notes in Computer Science//[[http://www.iteb.serpukhov.su/gentl/atel.htm| ]][[http://www.iteb.serpukhov.su/gentl/atel.htm#_top| ]], Vyacheslav L. 1997 "The Abstract Theory of Evolution of the Living", in, Springer Verlag, vol. 1305,  pp. 43-51, 1997 - Selected Papers of Proceedings of AISB1997 Workshop on Evolutionary Computing, 7th - 8th April 1997, Organisers: D. Corne and J.  Shapiro, The University of Manchester. Web version available:  http://www.iteb.serpukhov.su/gentl/atel.htm  * **Kalmykov** //Proceedings of AISB 1997 Workshop on Evolutionary Computing//, Vyacheslav L. 1997 "The Abstract Theory of Evolution of the Living" in, 7th - 8th April 1997, Manchester, pp. 25-30.
   * **Keeley** //Artificial Life III//, Brian. L. 1994 "Against the global replacement:  on the application of the philosophy of artificial intelligence to artificial life." In, C. G. Langton ed, SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proc. Vol. XVII.  Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley: 569-587. {The original version appears in ALife III, but an improved version is available from the author. -au}
   * **Keeley** //Artificial Life V//, Brian. L. 1997 "Evaluating Natural and Artificial Life." In, Christopher G. Langton and Katsunori Shimohara eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 264-271. 
   * **Keeley** //Philosophical Psychology//, Brian. L. 1998 "Artificial Life for Philosophers.", 11: 251-260. {Review of Boden 1996  and Langton 1995. -bk}
   * **Kirsh** //Artificial Intelligence//, David, 1991 "Today the Earwig, Tomorrow Man?", 47: 161-184.  Reprinted in Boden 1996. {A pointed and well-argued critique of the Brooks' Mobotic approach to robotics from the perspective of traditional Cognitive Science. -bk}
   * **Laing**, Richard, {Series of papers cited in Helmreich 1992}
   * **Lange** //Philosophy of Science//, Marc, 1996 "Life, 'Artificial life,' and Scientific Explanation"., 63: 225-244. {An excellent exploration of how the term "life" has explanatory value in biology, even when vaguely defined and not reductively understood. -bk}
   * **Langton** //Artificial Life//, Christopher G. 1989 "Artificial Life" from, Chris Langton, ed. SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proc. Vol. VI. Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley.  Reprinted in Boden 1996. {The original discussion of theoretical issues in ALife, particularly interesting is the discussion of AI and ALife. -bk}
   * **Langton** //Artificial Life II//, Christopher G. 1991 "Introduction" from, Chris Langton, C. Taylor, J.D. Farmer, &amp; S. Rasmussen, eds. SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proc. Vol. X. Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley. {pp. 19-21 discuss philosophy papers in volume. -bk}
   * **Langton** //Artificial Life: An Overview.////Artificial Life//, Christopher G. 1995 ed.,   Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. {This is the first three numbers of the first volume of, the journal, published in book form as an introduction to the field.-bk}
   * **Levy** //Artificial Life: The Quest for a New Creation//, Steven 1992  .  New York, Pantheon Books. {"Popular Science" book overviewing ALife.  Contains some discussion of ethical issues. -bk}
   * **Levy** //Whole Earth Review//, Steven 1992 "A-Life Nightmare"., 76 Fall: 34-47.  {This article is an outtake from Levy 1992, in which he discusses the possible ethical worst-case implications of ALife with Doyne Farmer, Steen Rasmussen, Chris Langton, Danny Hillis, and Norman Packard. This issue has two other lengthy "popular science"-style articles on ALife. -bk}
   * **Mahner** **Bunge** //Foundations of Biophilosophy //, Martin, and, Mario 1997.  . Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer-Verlag {See particularly "[Sect. 4.4] Artificial Life", pp. 149-153. Mainly ontological critique of the strong ALife program in the light of a comprehensive emergentist-materialist metaphysics outlined in chapter 1 of the book. -au}
   * **Mainzer** //Thinking in Complexity: The Complex Dynamics of Matter, Mind, and Mankind//, Klaus 1994  . Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer. 3rd enlarged edition 1997, Japanese Translation: Tokyo 1997, Chinese Translation: Beijing 1997 {Mainzer is president of the German Society of Complex Systems and Nonlinear Dynamics}.
   * **Manderick** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//, Bernard 1992 "Selectionist Systems as Cognitive Systems." In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 441-447.
   * **Marchal** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//, Bruno 1992 "Amoeba, Planaria, and Dreaming Machines." In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 429-440.
   * **Matthews** //Essays on Aristotle's//, Gareth B. 1992 "Aristotle on Life".  Martha C. Nussbaum and Amelie O. Rorty eds.,   De anima. Oxford: Clarenden Press: 185-193.  Reprinted in Boden 1996.
   * **Maturana** **Varela** //Autopoesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living//, Humberto R. and, Francisco J. 1980    . Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Vol. 42. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Co. {The technical, detailed presentation of an autopoetic theory of biology, in which living systems are seen as "self creators." -bk}
   * **Maturana** **Varela** **Paolucci** //The Tree of Knowledge: The Biological Roots of Human Understanding//, Humberto R.,, Francisco J., and, Robert 1992  . Shambala, Boston. {The "popular" version of Autopoesis; revised in 1992. -bk}
   * **Maynard Smith**, John 1996 "Evolution--Natural and Artificial". In Boden 1996. {An esteemed evolutionary biologist offers some advice to ALifers. -bk} 
   * **Mayr** //The Growth of Biological Thought//, E. 1982  . Cambridge: Harvard University Press: 51-59. {Contains a list and discussion of potential behavioural criteria of life. -bk}
   * **McFarland** //International Studies in the Philosophy of Science//, David J. 1992 "Animals as Cost-Based Robots"., 6: 133-153. Reprinted in Boden 1996. {A concise introduction to  's approach to ethology, both natural and robotic. -bk}
   * **Miller** [[http://www.cogs.susx.ac.uk/| ]], Geoffrey E. 1995 "Artificial life as theoretical biology: how to do real science with computer simulation". Cognitive Science Research Paper 378, University of Sussex.  Click   here  to access this paper.
   * **Moran** //Artificial Life V//, Federico; Moreno, Alvaro; Minch, Eric; and Montero, Francisco 1997 "Further Steps Towards a Realistic Description of the Essence of Life".  In, Christopher G. Langton and Katsunori Shimohara eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 255-263. 
   * **Morris** //Formal Sciences Approach to Artificial Life//, Harold C. 1990   . Book Manuscript on submission. Cited in Morris, 1991. -bk 
   * **Morris** //Animals to Animats//, Harold C. 1991 "On the Feasibility of Computational Artificial Life: A reply to critics",, pp 4?-49. {A rather unconvincing response to the philosophical worries of Cariani, Rosen, and Pattee. -bk}
   * **Olsen** //Artificial Life//, Eric T. 1997 "The Ontological Basis of Strong Artificial Life",, 3 1: 29-39.
   * **Pattee** //Artificial Life//, H. H. 1989 "Simulations, Realizations, and Theories of Life." In  .  Reprinted in Boden 1996.  {Pattee argues that living systems are those which make "measurements," in the sense of quantum physics probability-wave-collapsings. -bk}
   * **Pattee** //Communication and Cognition - Artificial Intelligence//, H. H. 1995  "Evolving self-reference: matter, symbols, and semantic closure"., 12 1-2, 9-28.
   * **Pattee** //Advances in Artificial Life//, H. H. 1995  "Artificial life needs a real epistemology". In   . F. Moran, A. Moreno, J. J. Morelo, and P. Chacon, eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 23-38.
   * **Pattee** //Evolution, Order, and Complexity//, H.H. 1996 "The problem of observables in models of biological organizations". From, Elias L. Khalil and Kenneth E. Boulding, eds., London: Routledge. 
   * **Paton** **Nwana** **Shave** **Bench-Capon** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//, R.C.,, H.S.,, M.J.R., and, T.J.M., 1992 "Computing at the Tissue/Organ Level with Particular Reference to the Liver." In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 411-420.
   * **Peschl** //Artificial Life IV//, Markus F. 1994 "Autonomy vs. Environmental Dependency in Neural Knowledge Representaation."  In, Rodney A. Brooks and Pattie Maes, eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 417-423. {An analysis of the role of knowledge representation in neural nets and ALife systems. -bk}
   * **Prigogine** **Stengers** //Order out of Chaos//, I. &amp;, I.   {theoretical foundations of information and complexity in living systems -ML}
   * **Putnam** //Journal of Philosophy//, Hilary 1964 "Robots: Machines or artificially created life?"   . Early article on the philosophical issues in the creation of artificial life. -bk 
   * **Rasmussen** //Artificial Life II//, Steen 1990 "Aspects of Information, Life, Reality, and Physics." In  . Rather sketchy discussion of some big issues. -bk 
   * **Rosen**, R. "Some Epistemological Issues in Physics and Biology."
   * **Rosen** //Dynamical System Theory in Biology//, Robert 1970, Wiley-Interscience John Wiley and Sons, Inc..
   * **Rosen** //Fundamentals of Measurement and Representation of Natural Systems//, R. 1978  . New York: North Holland.
   * **Rosen** //Life Itself: A Comprehensive Inquiry into the Nature, Origin, and Fabication of Life//, R. 1992  . New York: Columbia University Press. {Formal biology. In other words, lots of axioms and proofs, but only a single reference to a biological source.  Seems like "castle-in-the-air" stuff to me, but some people I respect swear by it. -bk}
   * **Schrodinger** //What is Life?//, E. 1943  . Cambridge.
   * **Simons** //Are computers alive? Evolution and new life forms//, G. L. 1983  .  Boston: Birkhauser. 
   * **Smithers** //Toward a Practice of Autonomous Systems: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life//, Tim 1992 "Taking Eliminative Materialism Seriously: A Methodology for Autonomous Systems Research."  In Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds.  .  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press A Bradford Book: 31-40 {Like the title says, an application of EM to theoretical robotics. -bk}
   * **Sober** //Artificial Life II//, Elliot 1991 "Learning from Functionalism: Prospects for Strong Artificial Life."  In, edited by C. Langton, C. Taylor, J.D. Farmer, &amp; S. Rasmussen.  SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proc. Vol. X.  Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley. Reprinted in Boden 1996.  {Discussion and defense of an artificial intelligence-style functionalism approach to ALife.  Keeley 1994/1995 is, in part, a response. -bk}
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Key to annotations:  
   * au = the author of the work
   * bk = Brian Keeley
   * ML = Mike Lash 
   * RA = Roy Ascott